Erickson and Hulse 2000

Erickson, Peter and Clark Hulse, eds. Early Modern Visual Culture: Representation, Race, and Empire in Renaissance England. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.

Valerie Traub, Mapping the Global Body (44-)

"Race, for instance, seems not to have existed in the sixteenth century as a stable category of biological difference, but only as one concept among parallel an overlapping concerns of lineage, civility, religion, and nation. Rather than relying on the phenotypic characteristics -- skin color, bodily structure -- promoted as the basis of race in modern science, concepts of race in the early modern period drew from various, albeit exorcized, notions of social allegiance and geographical affiliation. Gender appears to have been conceived, at least within the influential discourses of medicine, science, and theology, as a hierarchical manifestation of a normatively male bodily form. Men and women were not viewed as two opposite sexes, with incommensurate natures. Rather, they were thought to exist on a hierarchical continuum, differentiated by their relative moral capacities and humoral balances, with men being more perfect, more rational, hotter, and more active than women." (44)