Casson 2001

Casson, Lionel. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.

The Beginnings: The Ancient Near East

Egypt: papyrus; Mesopotamia: clay tablets; Sumerians write in cuneiform on clay

Elba

Hattusas, capital of empire of Hittites from c17-13BC

• mass of clay tablets uncovered from royal palace, most documentary
• many have colophons identifying the title and scribe
• series of tablets from c13BC containing detailed bibliographical entries -- an early library catalogue
• repeated copying of well-known works built up collections for particular temple/palaces -- no book trade
• library of this size only the prerogative of kings, who could create holdings by plundering other collections

Tiglath-Pileser I (reigned Assyria 1115-1077BC); founded library unearthed in temple of Assur at Ashur; mostly documentary and religious materials

Ashubanipal (reigned Assyria 688-627BC); boasted of his literacy (could read and write cuneiform); created large private royal library; probably acquired while plundering Babylon; tablets contain warnings against stealing or rubbing out the text

Near Eastern collections "were not the seed which engendered the libraris with their far wider horizons that were to arise in the world of Greece and Rome" (15)

Egypt surely had libraries, but none survive because of perishability of papyrus

The Beginnings: Greece

end of c5BC, Greeks begin mentioning "booksellers" (emerged in Athens); by the latter part of the c4BC, "the prerequitsites for the creation of the public library had been met" (28): scriptoria turning out multiple copies, dealers selling them, people collecting them

leading up to library at Alexandria:

• c3BC, Aristotle amasses large personal library (28-9); student Demetrius of Phalerum was intimate with Ptolemies, may have suggested Aristotle's library as a model for Alexandria
• then Athens passes law stating authorized versions of the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides must be maintained by the records offic

The Library of Alexandria

Ptolemy I founded Museum to entice scholars to the cultural wasteland of Alexandria; offered scholars handsome salary, free food and lodging, tax exemption, to come live and work in an area of his palace

library grew to meet demands of the scholars; Ptolemies sent buyers out with money, told them to buy the oldest copies (less copying); confiscated books coming in on ships, gave a copy to the owner and kept the original -- wanted to acquire everything

newly acquired books stacked in warehouse; authors name and ethnic added to tab at end of rolls

main library, 490,000 rolls; "daughter library", 42,800

first head librarian: Zenodotus

• used Aristotle's system, presumably
• first to organize library alphabetically (by author, within categories, only by first letter)
• created first authorized text of Homer

Callimachus of Cyrene: produced the Pinakes, or Tables of Persons Eminent in Every Branch of Learning together with a List of Their Writings; brief biographical sketch of all authors with list of works in alphabetical order, organized by category (how to list authors who wrote across multiple genres?)

Eratosthenes, Director from ~245-205BC, learned in geography

(Philitas, created Miscellaneous Words, proto-dictionary of arcane terms in Homer; became wel-known)

thus first phase of Alexandrian scholarship created indispensable tools of scholarship: dictionaries, authoritative text editions, commentaries, grammars (45)

some believe library was destroyed by fire in 48BC; possibly only part was destroyed; after Rome took over Egypt in 30BC, Directorship and museum became political plum, and it degenerated; most likely was laid waste during fighting in Alexandria in 270AD

The Growth of Libraries

Pergamum, rivalled Alexandria; annoyed, Alexandria stopped exporting papyrus, so they produced more pergamena (paper of Pergamum) -- hence parchment

higher rates of education, literacy during c3-2BC; papyrus of everyday writing survives from Roman rule in Egypt

• people read to pass the time, often Homer (mostly Iliad), then Euripides
• major authors probably available in bookstores, the rest written to order
• local libraries could provide copies to copy from

The Beginnings: Rome

by end of c3BC, two types of private libraries in Rome: general colelctions of Greek classics owned by wealthy families, and comprehensive collections of Latin and Greek drama owned by theater managers (Plautus example) (65)

fate of Aristotle's library, 68-9

highly trained Greek slaves kept as library personnel in large private collections (70)

people acquire books by borrowing from friends, copying them for themselves (example of Cicero 76-7; see also Johnson 2009); people acquired current books through gift copies given by the author or presentation copies

bookstore acted as a scriptorium, a shop that did copying (78)

Libraries of the Roman Empire: The City of Rome

Caesar planned to enhance Rome's cultural status by constructing a public library, but his assassination cut the project short; was revived by Asinius Pollio

two sections, one for Latin works, the other for Greek

Trajan's library

Greek libraries stored stacks in small rooms, with large colonnade that could act as a reading room; Roman libraries stored books where they were read, and were primarily designed for readers

libraries then incorporated into public paths (~c2BC); baths acted as public spaces for all Romans, so the public had access to the collections

emperors cared about libraries, continued to add more

freedmen given white collar library jobs; from time of Vespasian onward to c2AD, though, libraries governed by men for whom the position was a stepping stone to a higher office (freeborn) (98)

when short on space, libraries may have stored less valuable books elsewhere, or begun to specialize (100)

Rome's many libraries did for Latin works what Alexandria was doing in one library for Greek

in Republican times, booksellers mostly transcribed works from private libraries; with empire, bookdealers had expanded role, would have available for ready sale works of contemporary authors

• no copyright, so authors didn't make much money from bookdealers, who could copy indefinitely

some libraries permitted limited borrowing

Libraries of the Roman Empire: Outside the City of Rome

graffiti preserved on walls of Pompeii (109-110)

"Claudian Addition" to Library of Alexandria, where a volume of Claudius' history was read annually

Athens had Roman libraries; Carthage, too

only library known west of Italy: Timgad (Thamugadi); probably because we don't have an historical record of others, since most towns had a literate population

From Roll to Codex

codex -- offspring of wax tablets; when more space was needed, multiple boards were bound together; then made from parchment, as notebooks (125)

four-sheet quire became norm (quaternio, foursome, ancestor of word "quire") (129)

codex had "profound effect upon the ease and pseed of research" (133-4); easier to copy from codices

Toward the Middle Ages

by c5AD, Roman Empire split into halves; both Christian

monasteries take over as scriptoria; papacy maintains archive

pagan literature has uncertain value

Cassiodorus; created model monastery named Vivarium after ponds for raising fish nearby; had library